First engine internal combustion (ICE) was invented by the French engineer Lenoir in 1860. This engine largely repeated steam machine, worked on lighting gas in a two-stroke cycle without compression. The power of such an engine was about 8 hp, the efficiency was about 5%. This Lenoir engine was very cumbersome and therefore found no further use.
After 7 years, the German engineer N. Otto (1867) created a 4-stroke engine with compression ignition. This engine had a power of 2 hp, with a speed of 150 rpm and was already mass-produced.
10 hp engine had an efficiency of 17%, a mass of 4600 kg and was widely used. In total, more than 6 thousand of these engines were produced.
By 1880, the engine power was increased to 100 hp.
Fig 3. Lenoir's engine: 1 - spool; 2 - cylinder cooling cavity: 3 - spark plug: 4 - piston: 5 - piston rod: 6 - connecting rod: 7 - ignition contact plates: 8 - spool thrust: 9 - crank shaft with flywheels: 10 - eccentric of spool thrust.
In 1885, in Russia, the captain of the Baltic Fleet I.S. Kostovich created an 80 hp engine for aeronautics. with a mass of 240 kg. At the same time in Germany, G. Daimler and independently of him K. Benz created a low-power engine for self-propelled carriages - cars. From this year the era of cars began.
At the end of the 19th century. German engineer Diesel created and patented the engine, which later became known as the Diesel engine after the author. Fuel in the Diesel engine was supplied to the cylinder compressed air from the compressor and ignited by compression. The efficiency of such a motor was approximately 30%.
Interestingly, a few years before Diesel, Russian engineer Trinkler developed an engine that runs on crude oil according to mixed cycle - on which all modern diesel engines work, but it was not patented, and few people now know the name of Trinkler.
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The role and use of internal combustion engines in construction
An internal combustion engine (ICE) is called a piston heat engine, in which the processes of fuel combustion, the release of heat and its transformation into mechanical work occur directly
Basic mechanisms and systems of the engine
The internal combustion engine consists of a crank mechanism, a gas distribution mechanism and five systems: power supply, ignition, lubrication, cooling and starting. crank mechanism intended for play
Theoretical and actual cycles
The nature of the working process in the engine is different - the heat supply (combustion) occurs at a constant volume (near TDC, these are carburetor engines) or at a constant pressure
1.7.3. The compression process serves: 1 to expand the temperature limits between which the working process takes place; 2 to ensure the maximum
Heat transfer during compression
In the initial period of compression after closing intake valve or purge and outlet ports, the temperature of the charge filling the cylinder is lower than the temperature of the walls, head, and piston crown. Therefore, in the lane
Indicators of efficiency, economy and design excellence
Indicator indicators: Fig. 20. Indicator diagram of a four-stroke
Indicators of toxicity of exhaust gases and ways to reduce toxicity
The starting materials in the combustion reaction are air containing approximately 85% carbon, 15% hydrogen and other gases and hydrocarbon fuel containing approximately 77% nitrogen, 23% oxygen
Flammability limits of air-fuel mixtures
Figure: 24. Combustion temperatures of gasoline-air combustible mixtures of different compositions: T
Combustion in carburetor engines
In carburetor engines, by the time a spark appears, a working mixture consisting of air, vaporous or gaseous fuel and residual gases fills the compression volume. Process
Detonation
Detonation is a complex chemical-thermal process. Outward signs detonation is the appearance of sonorous metal knocks in the engine cylinders, a decrease in power and engine overheating
Combustion in diesel engines
Features of the combustion process, Fig. 28: - fuel supply starts with an advance by an angle θ to TDM. and ends after VMT; - pressure change from t.
Diesel ICE combustion chambers
Unshared combustion chambers. In undivided combustion chambers, Fig. 29, the improvement of the process of fuel atomization and mixing it with air is achieved
Crankshaft and gas distribution mechanisms
3.1. The crank mechanism (Fig. 33) is designed to perceive the pressure of gases and convert the reciprocating movement of the piston into the rotational movement of the crankshaft.
Aspiration, purpose and methods of pressurization
Engine cylinder charging can be either dynamic or carried out using a special supercharger (compressor). There are three systems of pressurization with the help of superchargers:
Engine power systems
4.1 Diesel power supply system. The fuel system supplies fuel to the cylinders. In this case, high power
Power system for carburetor engines
Preparation and supply of a combustible mixture to the cylinders of carburetor engines, regulation of its quantity and composition is carried out by the power system, the work of which has a great
Contact transistor ignition system
KTSZ began to appear on cars in the 60s. With an increase in the compression ratio, the use of poorer working mixtures and with an increase in the crankshaft speed and the number of valve cylinders
Non-contact transistor ignition system
BTSZ began to be used in the 80s. If in the KSZ the breaker directly opens the primary circuit, in the KTSZ - the control circuit, then in the BTSZ (Fig. 61-63) there is no breaker and the control becomes contactless
Microprocessor-based engine control systems
MSUD began to be installed on cars from the mid-80s on cars equipped with fuel injection systems. The system manages the engine for optimal performance and
Distributor cover
The outer surface of the distributor cap as well as the ignition coils must be kept clean. At high "Zhiguli" covers, the impulse flow on the outer surface onto the body is distributed
Spark plug
Spark plugs are used to generate the electrical spark needed to ignite the working mixture in the engine cylinders.
Breaker contacts
The reliability of the classic ignition system (KC3) is largely interrupter dependent. It often happens that about the breaker (by the way, as about other elements of the ignition system)
Lubrication and cooling and starting systems
Key provisions: The engine lubrication system is designed to prevent increased wear, overheating and seizure of rubbing surfaces, reduce the cost of indicators
Cooling system
In piston engines, during the combustion of the working mixture, the temperature in the engine cylinders rises to 2000-28000 K. By the end of the expansion process, it decreases to 1000-1
Starting system
Start of piston motors sec., regardless of the type and design, is carried out by rotating the crankshaft of the engine from an external source of energy. In this case, the speed should be about
Fuel
Fuel for internal combustion engines - products of crude oil processing (gasoline, diesel fuel) - The main part of it is hydrocarbons. Gasoline is obtained by condensation of light fractions of oil refining
Engine oil
7.3.1. Requirements for engine oils In piston engines, oils of mainly petroleum origin are used to lubricate parts. Physicochemical properties of oils due to
Coolants
The cooling system removes 25-35% of the total heat. The efficiency and reliability of the cooling system is highly dependent on the quality of the coolant. Cooling requirements
from obsession
Introduction …………………………………………………………………… .2
1. History of creation ……………………………………………….… ..3
2. History of the automotive industry in Russia ………………………… 7
3. Reciprocating internal combustion engines …………………… 8
3.1 Classification of internal combustion engines ………………………………………… .8
3.2 Basics of the device of piston internal combustion engines ……………………… 9
3.3 Operating principle …………………………………………… ..10
3.4 The principle of operation of a four-stroke carburetor engine ……………………………………………………………… 10
3.5 Operating principle of a four-stroke diesel engine …………… 11
3.6 Operating principle of a two-stroke engine …………… .12
3.7 Working cycle of four-stroke carburetor and diesel engines …………………………………………. …………… .13
3.8 Working cycle of a four-stroke engine ……… ... …… 14
3.9 Duty cycles of two stroke engines………………...15
Conclusion …………………………………………………………… ..16
Introduction.
The 20th century is a world of technology. Mighty machines extract millions of tons of coal, ore and oil from the bowels of the earth. Powerful power plants generate billions of kilowatt-hours of electricity. Thousands of factories and plants make clothing, radios, televisions, bicycles, cars, watches and other essential products. The telegraph, telephone and radio connect us to the whole world. Trains, motor ships, airplanes high speed carry us across continents and oceans. And high above us, outside the earth's atmosphere, rockets and artificial Earth satellites fly. All this works not without the help of electricity.
Man began his development with the appropriation of the finished products of nature. Already at the first stage of development, he began to use artificial tools.
With the development of production, conditions for the emergence and development of machines begin to take shape. At first, machines, like tools of labor, only helped a person in his work. Then they gradually began to replace him.
In the feudal period of history, for the first time, the power of the water flow was used as a source of energy. The movement of the water rotated the water wheel, which in turn set in motion various mechanisms. During this period, a wide variety of technological machines appeared. However, the widespread use of these machines was often slowed down due to the lack of water flow nearby. It was necessary to look for new sources of energy to drive machines anywhere on the earth's surface. We tried wind energy, but it turned out to be ineffective.
They began to look for another source of energy. The inventors worked for a long time, they tested a lot of machines - and now, finally, new engine was built. It was a steam engine. He set in motion numerous machines and machine tools in factories and plants. In the early 19th century, the first land-based steam vehicles - locomotives.
But steam engines were complex, cumbersome, and expensive installations. The rapidly developing mechanical transport needed a different engine - small and cheap. In 1860 the Frenchman Lenoir, using the structural elements of a steam engine, gas fuel and an electric spark for ignition, designed the first practical internal combustion engine.
1. HISTORY OF CREATION
Using internal energy means doing useful work at the expense of it, that is, converting internal energy into mechanical energy. In the simplest experiment, which consists in the fact that a little water is poured into a test tube and brought to a boil (and the test tube is initially closed with a cork), the cork under the pressure of the generated vapor rises and pops out.
In other words, the energy of the fuel is converted into the internal energy of the steam, and the steam, expanding, does work, knocking out the plug. So the internal energy of the steam is converted into the kinetic energy of the plug.
If the test tube is replaced with a strong metal cylinder, and the plug is replaced with a piston that fits snugly against the cylinder walls and is able to move freely along them, you will get a simple heat engine.
Heat engines are machines in which the internal energy of the fuel is converted into mechanical energy.
The history of heat engines goes back to the distant past, they say, more than two thousand years ago, in the III century BC, the great Greek mechanic and mathematician Archimedes built a cannon that fired with steam. A drawing of the Archimedes cannon and its description were found 18 centuries later in the manuscripts of the great Italian scientist, engineer and artist Leonardo da Vinci.
How did this cannon fire? One end of the barrel was very hot over the fire. Then water was poured into the heated part of the barrel. The water instantly evaporated and turned into steam. The steam, expanding, threw out the core with a force and a crash. What is interesting for us here is that the barrel of the gun was a cylinder, along which the core slid like a piston.
About three centuries later, in Alexandria - a cultural and wealthy city on the African coast of the Mediterranean Sea - the outstanding scientist Heron lived and worked, whom historians call Heron of Alexandria. Geron left several works that have come down to us, in which he described various machines, devices, mechanisms known at that time.
In the writings of Heron, there is a description of an interesting device, which is now called the Heron's ball. It is a hollow iron ball fixed in such a way that it can rotate around a horizontal axis. From a closed boiler with boiling water, steam through a tube enters the ball, from the ball it breaks out through the curved tubes, while the ball starts to rotate. The internal energy of the steam is converted into mechanical energy of the ball's rotation. Geron's ball is a prototype of modern jet engines.
At that time, Heron's invention did not find application and remained only fun. Fifteen centuries have passed. During the new heyday of science and technology, which came after the Middle Ages, about the use internal energy couple ponders Leonardo da Vinci. In his manuscripts there are several drawings depicting a cylinder and a piston. There is water under the piston in the cylinder, and the cylinder itself is heated. Leonardo da Vinci assumed that the steam formed as a result of heating water, expanding and increasing in volume, would seek a way out and push the piston up. During its upward movement, the piston could do useful work.
Giovanni Branca, who lived for the centuries of the great Leonardo, had a slightly different idea of \u200b\u200ban engine that uses steam energy. It was a wheel with
blades, in the second, a jet of steam struck with force, due to which the wheel began to rotate. It was essentially the first steam turbine.
In the 17th-18th centuries, the Englishmen Thomas Severi (1650-1715) and Thomas Newcomen (1663-1729), the Frenchman Denis Papen (1647-1714), the Russian scientist Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov (1728-1766) and others worked on the invention of steam.
Papen built a cylinder in which the piston moved freely up and down. The piston was connected by a cable, thrown over the block, with a load, which also rose and fell after the piston. According to Papen, the piston could be connected with any machine, for example, a water pump that would pump water. Pox was poured into the lower reclining part of the cylinder, which was then set on fire. The resulting gases, trying to expand, pushed the piston up. After that, diode water was poured over the cylinder and piston from the outside. The gases in the cylinder were cooled, and their pressure on the piston decreased. The piston, under the influence of its own weight and external atmospheric pressure, was lowered down, while lifting the load. The engine was doing useful work. For practical purposes, it was useless: the technological cycle of its work was too complicated (filling and igniting gunpowder, pouring water over it, and this throughout the entire operation of the engine!). In addition, the use of such an engine was far from safe.
However, one cannot fail to see features in the first car of Palen modern engine internal combustion.
In his new engine, Papen used water instead of gunpowder. It was poured into the cylinder under the piston, and the cylinder itself was heated from below. The resulting steam lifted the piston. Then the cylinder was cooled, and the vapor in it condensed - again turned into water. The piston, as in the case of a powder engine, fell down under the influence of its weight and atmospheric pressure. This engine worked better than a powder engine, but it was also of little use for serious practical use: it was necessary to supply and remove fire, supply chilled water, wait for the steam to condense, shut off the water, etc.
All these disadvantages were associated with the fact that the preparation of the steam necessary for the engine operation took place in the cylinder itself. But what if ready-made steam, obtained, for example, in a separate boiler, is admitted into the cylinder? Then it would be enough to alternately admit steam, then chilled water into the cylinder, and the engine would work with more speed and less fuel consumption.
A contemporary of Denis Palen, the Englishman Thomas Severi, who built a steam pump to pump water out of the mine, guessed about this. In his machine, steam was prepared outside the cylinder - in a boiler.
Following Severi, the English blacksmith Thomas Newcomen designed the steam engine (also adapted for pumping water out of the mine). He skillfully used much of what was invented before him. Newcomen took a cylinder with a Papen piston, but he received steam to lift the piston, like Severi, in a separate boiler.
The Newcomen machine, like all of its predecessors, worked intermittently - there was a pause between two piston strokes. It was as tall as a four-five-story building and, therefore, exceptionally<прожорлива>: Fifty horses barely had time to bring her fuel. The service staff consisted of two people: the fireman continuously threw coal into<ненасытную пасть> furnaces, and the mechanic operated the taps that let steam and cold water into the cylinder.
People have been making cars for over a century, and there is an internal combustion engine under almost every hood. During the latter, the principle of its operation remained unchanged: oxygen and fuel enter the engine cylinders, where an explosion (ignition) occurs, resulting in power unit a force is generated that propels the car forward. But since the first appearance of the internal combustion engine (ICE), engineers have been honing it every year to make it faster, more reliable, more economical, more efficient.
Thanks to this, today everyone modern cars become more powerful and more economical. Some ordinary cars today they have such power, which until recently was only in powerful expensive supercars. But without huge breakthroughs, today we would still own low-power, gluttonous cars that will not drive far from a gas station. Fortunately, from time to time, such breakthrough technologies have been discovered more than once. new stage in the development of internal combustion engines. We decided to recall the most important dates in the evolution of ICE development. Here they are.
1955: fuel injection
Before the advent of the injection system, the process of fuel entering the engine combustion chamber was imprecise and poorly regulated, since it was supplied with the help of a carburetor, which constantly needed cleaning and periodic complex mechanical adjustments. Unfortunately, the efficiency of the carburetors was influenced by weather conditions, temperature, air pressure in the atmosphere and even how high the car is located above sea level. With the advent of electronic injection fuel (injector) fuel supply process has become more controlled. Also, with the advent of the injector, car owners got rid of the need to manually control the engine heating process by adjusting throttle with the help of "suction". For those who do not know what suction is:
The suction is the carburetor trigger control knob, which is used to carburetor machines it was necessary to regulate the enrichment of the fuel with oxygen. So if you run cold engine, then on carburetor machines it is necessary to open the "suction", enriching the fuel with oxygen more than is necessary on a warm engine. As the engine warms up, gradually close the carburetor trigger adjustment knob, returning the fuel oxygen enrichment to normal values.
Today, this technology naturally looks antediluvian. But until recently, most cars in the world were equipped with carburetor fuel delivery systems. This is despite the fact that injector-assisted fuel injection technology came into the world in 1955, when the injector was first used on a car (previously, this fuel delivery system was used in aircraft).
This year, the injector was tested on a Mercedes-Benz 300SLR sports car, which was able to drive almost 1600 km without breaking. The car covered this distance in 10 hours 7 minutes and 48 seconds. The test took place as part of the next Thousand Mile race. This car set a world record.
By the way, the Mercedes-Benz 300SLR became not only the very first production car with fuel injection developed by Bosch, but also the most fast car in the world in those years.
Two years later, Chevrolet introduced the fuel-injected Corvette sports car (Rochester Ramjet system). As a result, this car became faster than the discoverer of the Mercedes-Benz 300SLR.
But despite the success with unique system fuel injection Rochester Ramjet, namely electronic injection systems Bosch (electronically controlled) launched an offensive around the world. As a result, in a short time, fuel injection, developed by Bosch, began to appear on many European vehicles. In the 1980s, electronic fuel injection systems (injector) took over the world.
1962: turbocharging
The turbocharger is one of the most precious stones in internal combustion engines. The fact is that the turbine, which supplies more air to the engine cylinders, once allowed
During the Second World War, 12-cylinder fighters take off higher, fly faster, farther and consume less expensive fuel.
As a result, like many technologies, the turbine system from aircraft technology came to the automotive industry. So, in 1962, the first production cars with a turbocharger were presented in the world. They became, or Saab 99.
Then General Motors tried to develop further this technology of turbocharging internal combustion engines in passenger cars. Thus, the "Turbo Rocket Fluid" technology appeared on the Oldsmobile Jetfire, which, in addition to the turbine, used a reservoir with gas and distilled water to increase the engine power. It was a real fantasy. But then GM abandoned this complex, expensive and dangerous technology. The fact is that by the end of the 1970s, companies such as MW, Saab and Porsche, having won first places in many world auto races, proved the value of turbines in motorsport. Today turbines have come to ordinary cars and in the near future they will send ordinary atmospheric motors on retire.
1964: rotary engine
The only engine that could truly break the shape of a conventional internal combustion engine was the rotary miracle engine by engineer Felix Wankel. The form of its internal combustion engine had nothing to do with the engine we are used to. is a triangle within an oval, rotating with devilish force. By design, a rotary engine is lighter, less complex, and cooler than a conventional internal combustion engine with pistons and valves.
The first rotary engines on serial cars were used by Mazda and the now defunct German automaker NSU.
The very first production car with a Wankel rotary engine was the NSU Spider, which began production in 1964.
Then Mazda started the production of its cars equipped with a rotary engine. But in 2012 she gave up using rotary engines... The last one with a rotary motor was the model.
But recently, in 2015, Mazda unveiled the RX-Vision 2016 concept car at the Tokyo Auto Show, which uses a rotary engine. As a result, rumors began to appear in the world that the Japanese were planning to revive rotary cars in the coming years. It is assumed that at the moment a specialized group of Mazda engineers somewhere in Hiroshima is sitting behind closed doors and creating a new generation of rotary motors, which should become the main engines in all future new mazda models, ushering in a new era of company revival.
1981: engine cylinder deactivation technology
The idea is simple. The fewer cylinders the engine runs, the fewer. Naturally, the V8 engine is much more voracious than the four-cylinder. It is also known that when operating a car, people use the car in the city most of the time. It is logical that if the car is equipped with 8- or 6-cylinder engines, then when traveling in the city, all the cylinders in the engine are basically unnecessary. But how can you simply turn an 8-cylinder into a 4-cylinder when you don't have to use all the cylinders for power? In 1981, Cadillac decided to answer this question, which introduced an engine with an 8-6-4 cylinder deactivation system. This motor used electromagnetic controlled solenoids to close valves on two or four cylinders of the engine.
This technology was supposed to improve the efficiency of the engine, for example. But the subsequent unreliability and awkwardness of this engine with a cylinder deactivation system scared all automakers, who for 20 years were afraid to use this system in their engines.
But now this system is starting to conquer the automworld again. Today, several car manufacturers already use this system on their production vehicles. Moreover, the technology has proven itself very, very well. The most interesting thing is that this system continues to evolve. For example, this technology may soon appear on four-cylinder and even three-cylinder engines. It is fantastic!
2012: High Compression Engine - Compression Ignition of Gasoline
Science does not stand still. If science had not developed, then today we would still live in the Middle Ages and believe in sorcerers, fortune tellers and that the earth is flat (although today there are still many people who believe in such nonsense).
Science does not stand still in the auto industry. So, in 2012, another breakthrough technology appeared in the world, which, perhaps, very soon will turn everything around.
These are engines with a high compression ratio.
We know that the less air and fuel are compressed inside the internal combustion engine, the less energy we get at the moment when fuel mixture ignites (explodes). Therefore, automakers have always tried to make engines with a rather large compression ratio.
But there is a problem: the higher the compression ratio, the greater the risk of spontaneous combustion of the fuel mixture.
Therefore, as a rule, ICEs have certain limits in the compression ratio, which has been unchanged throughout the history of the automotive industry. Yes, each engine has a different compression ratio. But it doesn't change.
In the 1970s, unleaded gasoline was widespread around the world, which, when burned, produces a huge amount of smog. To somehow cope with the terrible environmental friendliness, automakers began to use V8 engines with low compression ratio. This made it possible to reduce the risk of spontaneous ignition of low quality fuel in engines, as well as to increase their reliability. The fact is that when the fuel spontaneously ignites, the engine can receive irreparable damage.
The main device of any vehicle, including ground-based, is the power plant - an engine that converts various types of energy into mechanical work.
In the course of the historical development of transport engines, the mechanical work of the movement was carried out through the use of:
1) the muscular strength of humans and animals;
2) the strength of the wind and water flows;
3) thermal energy of steam and different types gaseous, liquid and solid fuels;
4) electrical and chemical energy;
5) solar and nuclear power.
Records of attempts to build self-propelled vehicles were already in the XV-XVI centuries. True, the power plants of these "vehicles" were the muscular strength of a person. One of the first well-known self-propelled units with a "muscle engine" is the hand-driven wheelchair of the legless watchmaker from Nuremberg Stephan Farfler, which he built in 1655.
The most famous in Russia is the "self-running carriage" built in St. Petersburg by the peasant L. L. Shamshurenkov in 1752.
This stroller, quite roomy to carry several people, was set in motion by the muscular power of two people. The first pedal metal bicycle, similar in design to modern ones, was made by the serf peasant of the Verkhotrusky district of the Perm province Artamonov at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries.
The most ancient power plants, though not transport ones, are hydraulic motors - water wheels driven by the flow (weight) of falling water, as well as wind turbines. The power of the winds has been used since ancient times for the movement of sailing ships, and much later for rotary ones. The use of wind in rotary vessels was carried out using vertical rotating columns that replaced the sails.
Appearance in the XVII century. water engines, and later steam engines played an important role in the origin and development of manufacturing, and then the industrial revolution. However, the great hopes of inventors self-propelled crews on the use of the first steam engines for vehicles were not justified. The first steam self-propelled gun with a carrying capacity of 2.5 tons, built in 1769 by the French engineer Joseph Caño, turned out to be very bulky, slow-moving and requiring obligatory stops every 15 minutes of movement.
Only at the end of the 19th century. in France, very successful models of self-propelled crews with steam engines were created. Beginning in 1873, the French designer Ademe Bole built several successful steam engines. In 1882, Dion-Bouton steam cars appeared,
and in 1887 - the cars of Leon Serpole, who was called the "apostle of the couple". Serpole's flat-tube boiler was a very sophisticated steam generator with almost instantaneous water evaporation.
Serpole steam cars competed with petrol cars in many races and high-speed competitions up to 1907. At the same time, the improvement of steam engines as transport engines continues today in the direction of reducing their weight and dimensions and increasing the efficiency.
Improvement of steam engines and development of internal combustion engines in the second half of the 19th century. was accompanied by attempts by a number of inventors to use electrical energy for transport engines. On the eve of the third millennium, Russia celebrated the centenary of the use of urban ground electric transport - the tram. A little over a hundred years ago, in the 80s of the XIX century, the first electric cars appeared. Their appearance is associated with the creation of lead-acid batteries in the 1860s. However, too high specific gravity and insufficient capacity did not allow electric vehicles to compete with steam engines and gas-petrol engines. Electric vehicles with lighter and more energy-intensive silver-zinc batteries have also not found widespread use. In Russia, the talented designer I. V. Romanov created at the end of the XIX century. several types of electric vehicles with fairly light batteries.
Electric cars have quite high advantages. First of all, they are environmentally friendly, since they do not have exhaust gases, have a very good traction characteristic and high accelerations due to the increasing torque with a decrease in the speed; use cheap electricity, easy to operate, reliable in operation ", etc. Today, electric vehicles and trolleybuses have serious prospects for their development and use in urban and suburban transport due to the need for a radical solution to the problems of reducing environmental pollution.
Attempts to create piston engines internal combustion was undertaken at the end of the 18th century. So, in 1799, the Englishman D. Barber proposed an engine that ran on a mixture of air with gas obtained by distilling wood. Another inventor of the gas engine, Etienne Lenoir, used luminous gas as fuel.
Back in 1801, the Frenchman Philippe de Bonnet proposed a project for a gas engine, in which air and gas were compressed by independent pumps, fed into the mixing chamber and from there into the engine cylinder, where the mixture was ignited by an electric spark. The appearance of this project is considered the date of birth of the idea of \u200b\u200belectric ignition of a fuel-air mixture.
The first stationary engine of a new type, operating on a four-stroke cycle with preliminary compression of the mixture, was designed and built in 1862 by the Cologne mechanic N. Otto.
Almost all modern gasoline and gas engines still operate according to the Otto cycle (a cycle with a constant volume heat supply).
The practical application of internal combustion engines for transport crews began in the 70s - 80s. XIX century. based on the use of gas and fuel-air mixtures as fuel and preliminary compression in the cylinders. Three German designers are officially recognized as the inventors of transport engines operating on liquid fractions of oil distillation: Gottlieb Daimler, who built a motorcycle with a gasoline engine under a patent dated August 29, 1885;
Karl Benz, who built a three-wheeled carriage with a gasoline engine under a patent dated March 25, 1886;
Rudolph Diesel, who received a patent in 1892 for an engine with self-ignition of a mixture of air and liquid fuel due to the heat released during compression.
It should be noted here that the first internal combustion engines operating on light fractions of oil distillation were created in Russia. So, in 1879 the Russian sailor I.S.Kostovich designed and in 1885 successfully tested an 8-cylinder gasoline engine of low weight and high power. This engine was intended for aeronautical vehicles.
In 1899, the world's first economical and efficient compression-ignition engine was created in St. Petersburg. The flow of the working cycle in this engine differed from the engine proposed by the German engineer R. Diesel, who proposed to carry out the Carnot cycle with combustion along the isotherm. In Russia, within a short time, the design of a new engine - a compressorless diesel engine was improved, and already in 1901, compressorless diesels designed by G.V. Trinkler were built in Russia, and designs by Ya.V. Mamin - in 1910.
Russian designer E. A. Yakovlev designed and built a motor vehicle with a kerosene engine.
Successfully worked on the creation of crews and engines Russian inventors and designers: F.A. Blinov, Khaidanov, Guryev, Makhchansky and manyOthers.
The main criteria for the design and manufacture of engines up to the 70s of the XX century. there remained the desire to increase the liter power, and, consequently, to obtain the most compact engine. After the oil crisis 70 - 80 years. the main requirement was to obtain the maximum efficiency. The last 10 - 15 years of the XX century. the main criteria for any engine are the ever-growing requirements and standards for the environmental cleanliness of engines and, first of all, for a radical reduction in exhaust gas toxicity while ensuring good efficiency and high power.
Carburetor engines, which for many years had no competitors in terms of compactness and liter capacity, do not meet environmental requirements today. Even electronically controlled carburetors cannot meet the current emission requirements for most engine operating conditions. These requirements and the tough conditions of competition in the world market quickly changed the type of power plants for vehicles and, above all, for light vehicles. Today various systems fuel injection with various control systems, including electronic ones, almost completely replaced the use of carburetors on passenger car engines.
The radical restructuring of engine building by the largest automotive companies in the world in the last decade of the XX century. coincided with the third period of deceleration of the Russian engine building. Due to the crisis in the country's economy, the domestic industry was unable to ensure the timely transfer of engine-telebuilding to the production of new types of engines. At the same time, Russia has a good scientific research groundwork for the creation of promising engines and a qualified cadre of specialists who are able to quickly implement the existing scientific and design groundwork in production. Over the past 8 - 10 years, fundamentally new prototypes of engines with variable displacement and with variable compression ratio have been developed and manufactured. In 1995, it was developed and implemented at the Zavolzhsky Motor Plant and at the Nizhne-Novgorod Automobile Plant microprocessor system fuel supply and ignition control, ensuring compliance with EURO-1 environmental standards. Designed and manufactured samples of engines with a microprocessor control system for fuel supply and neutralizers, satisfying environmental requirements EURO-2. During this period, NAMI scientists and specialists developed and created: a promising turbo-compound diesel, a series of diesel and gasoline environmentally friendly clean engines traditional layout, hydrogen-fueled engines, floating high-traffic vehicles with gentle impact on the ground, etc.
Modern land modes of transport owe their development mainly to the use of piston internal combustion engines as power plants. It is piston internal combustion engines that are still the main type of power plants, mainly used in cars, tractors, agricultural, road transport and construction machines. This trend continues today and will continue in the near future. The main competitors of piston engines - gas turbine and electric, solar and jet power plants - have not yet left the stage of creating experimental samples and small experimental batches, although work on their refinement and improvement as automotive engines continues in many companies and firms. all over the world.
The first ideas for creating internal combustion engines date back to the 17th century, in 1680 Huygens proposed to build an engine that works by exploding a charge of gunpowder in a cylinder. By the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, a number of patents related to the conversion of organic fuel heat into work in the engine cylinder belonged.
Diesel engine
However, the first engine of this type, suitable for practical use, was built and patented by Lenoir (France) in 1860. The engine ran on lighting gas, without preliminary compression, and had an efficiency of about 3%.
In the 70-80s of the XIX century, widespread practical application began gasoline engines spark ignition operated on a fast combustion cycle. Since 1885, the construction of cars with gasoline internal combustion engines began. Karl Benz, Robert Bosch (Germany), Daimler (Austria) made a great contribution to the development of this type of engine. These engines were also developed in Russia - the captain of the Russian fleet I.S. Kostovich built in 1879 the lightest 80 hp airship engine at the time. with a specific gravity of 3 kg / h.p., far ahead of German engineers.
The next stage in the development of the internal combustion engine was the creation of the so-called "calorizing" engines, in which the fuel was ignited not by an electric spark, but by a hot part in the cylinder. Such engines began to be built in the early 90s of the 19th century.
In 1892, Rudolf Diesel, an engineer at MAN (Germany), received a patent for a new internal combustion engine (patent No. 67207 dated February 28, 1892). In 1893 he published a brochure "Theory and design of a rational heat engine, designed to replace the steam engine and other existing engines." In the "rational" engine, the compression pressure was assumed to be 250 atm, the efficiency was 75%, the operation was carried out according to the Carnot cycle (heat supply at T \u003d const), without cooling the cylinders, fuel-coal dust.
Only the 4th engine was presented to official tests in February 1897, which had a power of about 20 hp, a compression pressure of 30 atm and an efficiency of 26-30%. Such a high efficiency has not been achieved before in any heat engine.
Kostovich at his engine The cycle of the new engine was significantly different from that described in the patent and in the brochure. It implemented the principles previously known and tested in other experimental engines - preliminary compression of air in the cylinder, direct fuel supply at the end of the compression stroke, self-ignition of fuel, etc. The differences between the built engine and the 1st patent and the use of ideas from other inventors caused many attacks against R. Diesel, his numerous litigations and financial difficulties.
Probably, this gave rise to the tragic death of R. Diesel before the outbreak of the 1st World War. Nevertheless, in honor of the recognition of R. Diesel's merits in the creation of a new engine and its widespread introduction in industry and transport, the engine with compression ignition was named “diesel”.
Russian engineers solved many design issues of diesel engine building, gave the details the design that later became generally accepted. In our country, issues related to the use of diesel engines on ships were also resolved. In 1903, the world's first motor ship "Vandal", a lake-type tanker with a carrying capacity of 820 tons with three non-reversible 4-stroke engines with a total capacity of 360 hp, was commissioned. In 1908, the world's first sea-going motor ship, the Delo tanker (later V. Chkalov), was built for sailing in the Caspian Sea with a displacement of 6,000 tons with two diesel engines of 500 hp each. Following the plant "L. Nobel ”, Kolomensky and Sormovsky plants started to produce diesel engines.
The man who built the first diesel engine In 1893, an attempt was made at the MAN plant in Augsburg to build such an engine. The work was supervised by the author himself. At the same time, the impossibility of implementing the idea became clear - the engine could not work on coal dust, combustion at T \u003d const could not be carried out. In 1894, the 2nd engine was built, capable of operating without load for a short time. The 3rd engine built in 1895 turned out to be more successful. It rejected the main proposals of R. Diesel - the engine ran on kerosene, the fuel was sprayed with compressed air, combustion - at P \u003d const, water cooling of the cylinders was envisaged.
Thanks to the success of diesel engine construction in Russia, diesels began to be called at one time "Russian engines". Russia retained a leading position in ship diesel engine building up to the 1st World War. So, until 1912, 16 motor ships with a main diesel power of more than 600 hp were built all over the world; 14 of them were built in Russia. Even in the 20s, despite great destruction national economy during the 1st World War and the Civil War, our country created and produced low-speed crosshead marine engines of brands 6 DKRN 38/50, 4DKRN 41/50 and 6DKRN 65/86 with aggregate power of 750, 500 and 2400 hp, respectively.
Compressor diesel engines, in which fuel was supplied to the cylinder using compressed to high pressure air. As a rule, low-speed cross-head 2 or 4-stroke diesel engines, often double-acting, were used as the main ones. The 2-stroke internal combustion engine was purged by a piston purge pump driven from the crankshaft.
The idea of \u200b\u200ba compressorless diesel engine, patented in 1898 by a student of the Petersburg Technological Institute G.V. Trinkler (later a professor at the Gorky Institute of Water Transport Engineers), was widely developed only in the 30s, when sufficiently reliable fuel equipment was created for direct fuel injection using high-pressure pumps.
Rudolf Diesel's first engine In 1898, the St. Petersburg Mechanical Plant of the Ludwig Nobel company (now the plant
Russian Diesel) bought a license to manufacture new engines. The goal was set to ensure that the engine runs on cheap fuel - crude oil (instead of the expensive kerosene used in the West). This problem was successfully solved - in January 1899, the first diesel engine built in Russia with a capacity of 20 hp was tested. at a speed of 200 rpm.
A particularly rapid development of diesel engine building was observed after the 2nd World War. The predominant distribution as the main engine on ships of the transport fleet was received by a low-speed cross-head 2-stroke reversible compressorless single-action diesel engine operating directly on the propeller. As auxiliary engines used and are still used to this day medium-speed trunk 4-stroke diesel engines.
In the 50s, leading diesel-building companies launched work on forcing engines using gas turbine pressurization, tested and patented by Ing. Buchi (Switzerland) back in 1925. In low-speed 2-stroke engines, thanks to the boost, the average effective pressure in the cylinder Pe was raised from 4-6 kg / cm2 (early 50s) to 7-5-8.3 kg / cm2 in the 60s with the value of effective efficiency engines up to 38-40%. In the 70s, with further boosting of engines by supercharging, the average effective pressure in the cylinder was increased to 11-12 kg / cm2; the maximum cylinder diameters reached 1050-1060 mm with a piston stroke of 1900-2900 mm and a cylinder power of 5000-6000 els.
Currently, the industry supplies the world market with low-speed marine engines with an average effective cylinder pressure of 18-19.1 kg / cm2, with a cylinder diameter of up to 960-980 mm and a piston stroke of up to 3150-3420 mm. Aggregate capacities reach 82000-93000 els. with an effective efficiency of up to 48-52%. Such indicators of efficiency have not been achieved in any heat engine.
For medium-speed 4-stroke engines in the 50s, the average effective pressure Pe was in the range of 6.75-8.5 kg / cm2. In the 60s, Fe was increased to 14-15 kg / cm2. In the 70-80s, all leading diesel-building companies reached the Pe level of 17–20 kg / cm2; in experimental engines, Re 25-30 kg / cm2 was obtained. The maximum cylinder diameter was Дц \u003d 600-650 mm, the piston stroke S \u003d 600-650 mm, the maximum cylinder power Nec \u003d 1500-1650 els., The effective efficiency is 42-45%. Approximately these figures are offered on the market of medium-speed 4-stroke engines today.
The trend towards wider use of medium-speed engines as the main ones on the ships of the marine fleet appeared in the 60s. To some extent, it was associated with the success of the Pilstick company (France), which created the RS-2 engine of high competitiveness, as well as with the needs for the development of specialized vessels that put forward a limitation on the height of the engine room. Subsequently, engines of this type were created by other firms - V 65/65 Sulzer-MAN, 60M Mitsui, TM-620 Stork, Vyartsilya 46, etc. Further improvement of medium-speed ship engines goes on the way of increasing the piston stroke, boosting by boosting, increasing the efficiency of working cycles and the economy of operation by using increasingly heavy residual fuels, reducing harmful emissions from exhaust gases into the environment.
Vartsilä marine diesel engine The slow-speed 2-stroke diesel remains the most common main engine of modern marine vessels. At the same time, as a result of intense competition in the market for this class of engines, only 2 designs remained - Burmeister and Wein (Denmark) and Sulzer (Switzerland). The production of low-speed engines of a similar design was stopped by MAN (Germany), Doxford (England), Fiat (Italy), Getaverken (Sweden), Stork (Holland).
The Sulzer company, having created a fairly highly efficient range of RTA-type engines in the early 80s, nevertheless reduced their production from year to year. In 1996 and 1997. the firm received no orders for the RTA engines at all. As a result, a controlling stake in New Sulzer Diesel was bought by Wärtsilä (Finland).
Burmeister & Vine created a range of highly efficient long-stroke MS engines in 1981. However, the firm was unable to overcome financial difficulties and ceded a controlling stake to MAN. The MAN-B & W group continues to improve the engines of the MC range, offering customers cross-head engines with a cylinder diameter of 280 to 980 mm and a piston stroke-to-bore ratio of S / D \u003d 2.8; 3.2 and 3.8.
In Russia, modern low-speed diesel engines have been produced since 1959 at the Bryansk Machine-Building Plant under license from Burmeister and Vine. The engines are installed both on domestic ships and on foreign-built ships.
Further improvement of low-speed crosshead engines goes along the path of boosting them with supercharging, reducing the specific weight, increasing reliability, increasing the service life between openings, using the heaviest residual fuels, and reducing harmful emissions into the environment. Given the limited reserves of liquid fuel oil on the ground, research is being carried out on the use of coal dust as fuel in the cylinder of a low-speed diesel engine.
